STANLEY SPENCER ( OR WHATEVER THE WRITER FEELS IS RIGHT) Essay

STANLEY SPENCER ( OR WHATEVER THE WRITER FEELS IS RIGHT) - Essay Example The Lovers or The Dustman is an outstanding piece of work created by Stanley Spencer in 1934. The piece, which is owned by the Stanley Spencer Estate and is currently on display at the Laing Art Gallery in Newcastle Upon Tyne, is a richly detailed artwork with layers of meaning and depth. Looking at the piece one is drawn into it’s complexity and energy. The superficial experience brings a very defined view of village life. One sees by the nature of the organization of the figures the close knit comfort of those who actively engage in the lives of neighbors. The piece brings a sense of a chaotic moment in the lives of these villagers as they focus on a spectacle and one can see the beginnings of judgment and wonder on their faces. On closer inspection we see that the figures near the bottom are offering gifts of garbage which are according to a critical essay by Don Gray, â€Å"despite Spencers disavowal, ironic substitutes for gold, frankincense and myrrh, a fitting welcome to the new Christ by a non-believing, materialist age.† (Gray) The theme of The Lovers or The Dustman is the resurrection of common workers, specifically garbage men and dustmen. Spencer interpreted this piece by saying â€Å""...The joy of his (the dustmans) bliss is spiritual in his union with his wife who carries him in her arms and experiences the bliss of union with his corduroy trousers...They are gazed at by other reuniting wives of old laborers who are in ecstasy at the contemplation that they are reuniting and are about to enter their homes."(Gray) In this piece one can see a perspective of the female mind as they look on the reunion contemplating their own abilities to survive without these men in their lives. They have been â€Å"doing quite nicely without them thank you†, (Gray) as Gray puts it. One must wonder if this was influenced by Spencer’s relationship with Patricia Preece who was in turn involved in a

Qestions related to Public Sector Managemnt Assignment

Qestions related to Public Sector Managemnt - Assignment Example However, as the complexity of society grew, the state found itself in a situation in which it was increasingly required to engage in a litany of different social services. The evolution that Ian Chaston defines is one that is contingent upon a state that found itself increasingly involved in the lives of its citizens. However, rather than understanding this as a process that was not directed or focused, Chaston points the reader to the understanding that the ability to vote and the democratic process itself was one of the guiding mechanisms through which a degree of socialism came to be represented throughout society. Depending on the nation that is analyzed, the degree of socialism that exists within Western governments varies; however, it is broadly accepted that the state should have a direct level of impact with regards to the degree and extent of social services and representative safety net that exists for the unfortunate poor within the society. Coming to the realization that the entire society was predicated upon the strength of its middle class, the degree and extent to which government involvement could support this middle class and develop into a degree of further profitability was one of the main determinants that policymakers viewed with respect to redefining social integration throughout the years. 2.Per Bao et.al. "Beyond New Public Governance; A Value - Based Global Framework for Performance Management" What are the basic characteristics of "New Public Management" (NPM) and of "New Public Governance" (NPG) which has emerged in response to the limitations of NPM? Answered According to Bao et al. â€Å"Beyond New Public Governance: A Value-Based Global Framework for Performance Management†, and new Public management is a term that can most broadly be understood as denoting a range of government policies that work to

Controversial legal issue Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Controversial legal issue - Essay Example Major religions of the world favor the continuance of life in practically most instances with a very few exceptions where the taking of life can be justified. Religious laws are quite absolute about the prohibition against taking a life, whether one's own life or that of another person. In the eyes of God, anyone who takes life commits a grave mortal sin. However, great strides and advances in medical science and technology now allow the person to prolong life by artificial methods. This technological achievement is unprecedented in the history of mankind. For the first time ever, Man can now â€Å"play God† because he has a power to extend a life whenever he wants to. Regrettably, present laws and jurisprudence has not kept up with these medical advances. The result is often confusing as there are no rules to guide us by. In the same manner, ethics (in particular, biological ethics or bio-ethics) likewise has not been able to deal with complex medical issues. Euthanasia or me rcy killing is just one bio-medical issue that has hounded healthcare professionals and legal practitioners alike. The questions regarding euthanasia are many and very convoluted; there are no easy answers here. This paper re-visits and examines the issue of euthanasia from a legal perspective. Discussion There are many biological and medical issues that are not being resolved satisfactorily by the present state of our medical ethics today. Besides euthanasia, other examples that legal and medical experts alike grapple with are abortion, surrogate motherhood, organ transplants, brain death and end-of-life care (palliative medicine). The basic questions facing all ethicists can be generalized into a few categories, such as: how is life to be measured and determined (that life exists), who will judge whether a person should live or die, what constitutes proof of death and when should heroic medical intervention be withheld from a patient? The ultimate question is who has the right to live and the right to die? Even dying can be considered as one of the more basic human rights – that is, the right to die with dignity intact. Euthanasia – in plain and simple language, euthanasia means mercy killing. There are many situations in which euthanasia seems to be justified, such as when a person is suffering from an incurable and terminal disease and is very likely to suffer in great pain. Literally, the meaning of euthanasia in Greek is a â€Å"good and easy death† to relieve pain and suffering. Even the British House of Lords had deemed it appropriate to give a precise definition for it – â€Å"this is a deliberate intervention to end a life with express intention to relieve intractable suffering.† While people are still healthy, it is easy to be detached about all the debates on euthanasia but a time will come when a person has to face it and its consequences. The controversy surrounding euthanasia has been made more complicated beca use of the earlier practice of eugenics which is medical science applied to improving the composition of genetics in a human population (Appel, 2004, p. 611). Eugenics fell into disrepute because it was employed by the Nazis in their desire to attain a high level of purity of the Aryan races. There were several abuses committed such as forced sterilization, human experiments and the extermination of undesirable groups of people (compulsory or

Lab report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 6

Lab Report Example Consequently, there was need for compiling this towards calculating the maximum height fled by the model. In order to achieve the above objectives, the following equation for projectile motion was inherent. In the field of engineering, involving study of lift, thrust, gravity and even thrust, there is a great deal for considering this study. This experiment is important in engineering field especially where there is need to improve the design and reliability of air travel. It enables the study of lift required for the planes to fly thereby allowing the aerospace engineers to guide for a safe landing. In aerospace engineering, there is need for the engineers to have adequate knowledge of rocketry concept; otherwise, they would experience challenges when trying to launch either rockets or satellites for a safe landing. Predicting how high a model rocket fly is one of the integral concepts required when exploring rocketry concept, to help the engineers in guiding the rocket for a safe landing. For this rocket model, the results show that the time taken to reach the maximum height was 17.33 seconds while the maximum flight time was 34.66. The determination of the time required to reach the maximum height made it easy to use the projectile motion equation (Post 377). The velocity imparted by the machine was already known as 170 m/s. This speed is same for all rockets regardless of the launch angle because they are necessarily pressurized chambers. As it is in every projectile motion, the horizontal velocity remains constant as shown in the model drawn below. The graph obtained from the results also supports the fact that launching a model rocket assumes a projectile motion as shown in the similarity between the two. Getting the maximum time taken helped in solving for the maximum height, through assistance of the projectile motion equation. The height calculated was 1472.99 meters. Slight errors resulting from this

Importance of Being an Involved Parent Essay Example for Free

Importance of Being an Involved Parent Essay During the past twenty years, an increasing number of researchers and clinicians have begun to give more recognition to the importance of being an involved parent for individual and family development. The relations between being an involved parent and later adaptation are undoubtedly complex. Involvement theory says that, despite change in development, early parent involvement remains influential in later child functioning. Research found the permanent impact of early attachment (Richters and Walters, 1991). Researchers found the evidence that involved parent have consequences for social development across the life span. This research paper considers longer-term implications of involved parent for the continuing development of child. Involved parent is a good start toward healthy development. Research shifts the focus from the examination of parent-child interaction to the image of the parent-child relationship in the childs mind (Main, Kaplan, Cassidy, 1985). There is proper evidence that involved parent is not only connected to greater compliance and reciprocity (Richters Walters, 1991) but also to better peer relations, self-mastery, and sociability in the preschool years (Greenberg Speltz, 1990). The specific claims of parent involvement theory suggest the childs developing sense of self-confidence, effectiveness and self-worth, and aspects of intimate personal relationship (the capacity to be emotionally close, to want and receive care, and to give care to others). Thus, children with parent involvement histories have been found to be more positive, more responsive and less hostile with peers, and more cooperative with parents and so forth. Although the mother is usually the first attachment figure for the baby, many infants react just as much to their father, cooing and smiling and becoming excited at his approach. Some infants become attached primarily to their fathers and thrive at least as well in their development as do infants with initial maternal attachments. Moreover, fathers who are supportive of mothers and are themselves involved parents make it more likely that the infant will develop a secure maternal attachment as well as a secure paternal attachment. By their second year most infants who are well fathered show approximately equal attachment to both parents. It is important to note that attachment is not an all-or-none phenomenon. The style of the attachment and the details of the relationship vary with each parent and infant. Researchers have presented evidence that even newborns are capable of responding differentially toward their mother and father (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters Wall 1995). The infant can become attached to any individual who is a consistent source of stimulation, attention and comfort, not just to the mother. If both parents are involved, an infant can develop a strong attachment to each of them. Despite such research findings, traditional conceptions of maternal primacy are difficult to change. Involved parents tend to make even mundane activities like holding an infant or pushing a baby stroller. The pace and tempo of such activities tends to be faster and more varied for fathers than for mothers. Involved fathers are more likely to stimulate the infant to explore and to investigate new objects whereas mothers tend to engage their infants in relatively predictable activities. Infants who develop positive relationships with both their parents are likely to feel secure in exploring their environment in a relaxed manner and to enjoy being picked up by others (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters Wall 1995). In contrast, among insecure infants some may anxiously cling to their mothers while others seem to ignore them and to avoid eye contact. The quality of parenting that the infant receives certainly has important implications, but other factors including temperamental predispositions also play a major role in the social responsiveness of children to adults inside and outside of the family. Infants are not passive creatures just waiting to be fed or to have their diapers changed. They are active and striving, gradually increasing their self-motivated competence. Infants have a built-in motivation to explore and influence their environment. During the first month or so, the infant seems to be using many prewired responses. The infant has the capacity for orientation with respect to various stimuli including light and sound. Moreover, researchers have found that even the newborn is capable of some basic patterns of social reciprocity and is usually showing variations in responsivity toward different people. Despite marked individual variations, newborns are clearly social beings who can actively learn from their experiences of interacting with their fathers as well as their mothers (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters Wall 1995). Psychologist Frank Pedersen and his colleagues found that several measures of infant competence were correlated with the degree to which five- and sixmonth-old babies were involved with their fathers (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters Wall 1995). Frequent interaction with fathers was associated with more advanced functioning for sons. Although girls did not seem to be influenced by family structure, father-absent infant boys were also less cognitively competent than boys from father-present homes. Fatherpresent infant boys demonstrated more social responsiveness and novelty-seeking behavior than those who were father-absent. Having found no differences in the behaviors of married and husbandless mothers, the researchers attributed variations in the infant boys behavior to the type of interaction they had with their fathers. Data collected by psychologist Jay Belsky (1987) indicates that both maternal and paternal involvement is important factor in the development of exploratory functions. The most competent infants had fathers who participated in their physical care, expressed high levels of verbal responsiveness and affection and initiated vigorous motion play with them. Belsky stressed similarities as well as differences in the paternal and maternal factors that influenced infant behavior. In their efforts to encourage infant competence, mothers are generally more concerned with verbal-intellectual teaching, whereas fathers are more oriented toward active, arousing play and fostering autonomy and independence (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters Wall 1995). Research by pediatrician Michael Yogman (1984) and his colleagues supports the facilitative effect that active father participation may have on the developmental competence of infants. Yogman reported a significant relationship between a combined measure of father involvement during the prenatal and postnatal periods and the infants developmental functioning at nine months. In addition, he described a collaborative study done in Ireland that revealed a positive correlation between level of early father involvement and the cognitive maturity of year old infants.

Data-collection in Qualitative Research Essay Example for Free

Data-collection in Qualitative Research Essay This Chapter is about methods and techniques in data-collection during a qualitative research. We mentioned earlier that qualitative research is eclectic. That is, the choice of techniques is dependent on the needs of the research. Although this should be true for almost all social research, it is particularly so with qualitative research in that the appropriate method or techniques is often identified and adopted during the research. Qualitative research is also multi-modal. The researcher may adopt a variety of research techniques, or a combination of such, as long as they are justified by the needs. The discussion below is therefore not to identify a set of techniques unique to qualitative research, but rather, to introduce the methods and techniques most commonly used in qualitative research, and the issues related to such use. We shall introduce the methods and techniques in three broad categories: observations, interviews and study of documents. These are also the basic methods used in cultural anthropology (Bernard, 1988:62). Indeed, the discussions about qualitative research in education can be viewed as a particular case in cultural anthropology. Observations Observation usually means the researchers act to find out what people do (Bernard, 1988:62). It is different from other methods in that data occur not necessarily in response to the researchers stimulus. Observation may be obtrusive or unobtrusive. A researcher may simply sit in the corner of a school playground and observe how students behave during breaks. He may also stand by the school gate and observe how students behave at the school gate. Such cases of observation may be seen as unobtrusive. In other cases, the researchers may not apply any stimuli, but their presence per se may have some influence on the scene. The most common example in this category is classroom observation. Although the researcher may just sit quietly at the corner of a classroom, the presence of the researcher may  change the classroom climate. It is, nonetheless, still observation. Observation is a basic technique used in almost all qualitative research. Even if other methods or techniques are used, the researcher remains the most essential sensor or instrument and hence observation always counts (McCracken, 1988:18-20). For example, when interviewing is used, a qualitative researcher also takes into account the tonic or facial expressions of the informant, because they help interpret the verbal responses. Such expressions are only sensed by observation. If the interview is done in the field, then the surroundings of the interview site also provide meaningful data for the research. The surroundings can only be depicted through observation. Hence observation is indispensable in almost all occasions of qualitative research. However, the term observation may sometimes go beyond what is seen. It also pertains to what is heard, and even sometimes what is smelled. Case 4.1 provides one of such examples. Case 4.1: Classroom Observation Scheme In the IIEP project on basic education, Leung designed for the Chinese research a scheme for classroom observation. Classroom was taken as one of the environmental factors affecting students learning. The scheme was designed after Leung stayed in local schools for two days. The scheme did not confine itself to the performance of the teacher, although that was a part. The figure on the next page shows one of the six sections of the scheme. Different writers have different ways of classifying observations. Without running into juggling of definitions, we shall briefly introduce observations as participant observations and non-participant observations. More detailed classification of observations can be found in Bernard (1988), Goetz and LeCompte (1984) and Patton (1990). Participant Observation Participant observation is perhaps the most typical of qualitative research.  Some authors even use participant observation as a synonym for ethnographic research. Different writers may have slightly different definitions of participant observation. The following description by Fetterman is perhaps the most agreeable to most researchers. Participant observation is immersion in a culture. Ideally, the ethnographer lives and works in the community for six months to a year or more, learning the language and seeing patterns of behaviour over time. Long-term residence helps the researcher internalize the basic beliefs, fears, hopes and expectations of the people under study. (1989:45) Immersion of the participant can either be continuous or noncontinuous. The three classical cases we quoted in Chapter 1 all include participation in the continuous mode. Lis study of classroom sociology (Cases 3.8 and 3.9) involved one years continuous residence. In the second and third year she went to the school three days a week. She combined continuous with noncontinuous participant observations. Fetterman used noncontinuous participation when he was doing qualitative evaluation of educational programmes. Case 4.2: Noncontinuous Visits In two ethnographic studies, of dropouts and of gifted children, Fetterman visited the programmes for only a few weeks every couple of months over a three-year period. The visits were intensive. They included classroom observation, informal interviews, occasional substitute teaching,interaction with community members, and the use of various other research techniques, including long-distance phone-calls, dinner with students families, and time spent hanging out in the hallways and parking lot with students cutting classes. (Fetterman, 1989:46-7) II. Environment of the classroom 1. The classroom is on the _____ floor of the school building. 2. The classroom is near ( ) residential area ( ) factories ( ) road(s) ( ) field ( ) marketplace ( ) others _______________________________________ 3. The number of windows which provide lighting and ventilation to the classroom: ( ) satisfies the required standard ( ) is below the required standard 4. The main artificial lighting facility in the classroom is: ( ) florescent tubes total no.__________________ ( ) light bulbs total no.__________________ 5. Condition of lighting during the lesson : ( ) bright ( ) dim ( ) dark 6. Ventilation in the classroom: ( ) well ventilated ( ) stuffy ( ) suffocating 7. Quality of air in the classroom: ( ) refreshing ( ) a bit smelly ( ) stingy 8. Environments for listening: ( ) very quiet ( ) occasional noise ( ) noisy 9. Classrooms floor structure: ( ) concrete ( ) log ( ) mud ( ) carpet 10. Classrooms floor condition: ( ) clean ( ) some litter ( ) full of rubbish 11. Classrooms wall conditions: ( ) smooth clean ( ) some stains ( ) dirty damaged 12. Classrooms area: _____________m2; area/person: _____ m2. 13. Space use in classroom: ( ) looks spatial ( ) fairly crowded ( ) very crowded 14. Furniture and other article arrangements in the classroom: ( ) orderly and tidy ( ) messy 1Figure 1 Classroom Observation Scheme (Designed by Leung Yat-ming) Whytes experience in the Italian slum (Case 2) is perhaps the nearest to ideal in participant observation. He stayed in the community for two years. He experienced the life of a member of the Italian slum. In Whytes case, native membership allows the researcher the highest level of participant observation. Most researchers are denied such an opportunity, often because of constraints in time and resources, as we have discussed at length in Chapter 3. Under all sorts of constraints, at best the researcher lives as much as possible with and in the same manner as the individuals under investigation (Goetz and LeCompte, 1984: 109). In these circumstances, the researchers may not claim that they was doing ethnography, but it is legitimate to apply ethnographic approach and techniques to the study (Fetterman, 1989:47). Participant observation in its broad sense therefore tolerates different lengths of time and different degrees of depth. There is a full range of possible modes of participant observation, what Wolcott calls ethnographer sans[1] ethnography (Wolcott, 1984: 177). The most frequent case in education is that a researcher may stay in a school and become a teacher in that school. The researcher identity may or may not be disguised. The researcher may then, as a participant, observe teachers behaviours in teaching, in meetings, in conversations, and so forth. Sometimes, the researcher is readily a member of the community (say, a school) and may still carry out research as a participant observer. However, in this case, the researcher should be aware of his/her knowledge of the community and should be cautious that such knowledge would not lead to preoccupations about the school under research. In cases where the researchers have successfully gained membership (as Whyte did in the Italian  slum), the distinction between a native member and the researcher-as-participant begins to blur. This insider-outsider dialectics will be further discussed later. Nonparticipant Observation Strictly speaking, nonparticipant observation involves merely watching what is happening and recording events on the spot. In the qualitative orientation, because of the non-intervention principle, strict nonparticipant observation should involve no interaction between the observer and the observed. Goetz and LeCompte assert that in the strict sense nonparticipant observation exists only where interactions are viewed through hidden camera and recorder or through one-way mirror (1984: 143). Dabbs (1982:41), for example, used hidden camera in Atlanta at a plaza in Georgia State University, and studied an informal group that frequently gathered during the morning break. There are examples of using hidden video-cameras in school toilets to study drug problem among students, or to use unnoticed audio recording device to study student interactions. The use of audio or video recording device often invites concern in ethnical considerations. Such problems are similar to those arising in using one-way mirrors in interviews or psychological experiments. Such cases are rare in policy-related research. Another case of nonparticipant observation with ethical problem is disguised observation, or covert observation. A typical example is Humphreys (1975) study on homosexual activities. He did not participate in such activities, but offered to act as watch queen, warning his informants when someone approached the toilet. Another famous example is Van Maanens covert study of police. He became practically a police recruit. Over more than a decade, he slipped in and out of the police in various research roles (Van Maanen, 1982). Covert observations are again rare in research which is related to educational decision-making. Hidden camera or recorder and covert observation occur only exceptionally.  Most author would accept the watching of audience behaviour during a basketball game (Fetterman, 1989:47) or the watching of pedestrian behaviour over a street as acceptable examples of nonparticipant observations. Interaction between the researcher and the social community under study is often unavoidable. We have again discussed this at length in Chapter 3 under the notion of researcher intervention. If we perceive the problem of intervention as a matter of degrees, then the distinction between participant observation and nonparticipant observation begins to blur. The general principle across the board is that the researchers should minimize their interactions with the informants and focus attention unobtrusively on the stream of events (Goetz and LeCompte, 1984:143). Wolcotts study of school principal (Case 3) was perhaps the most intensive type of nonparticipant observation that one could find in the realm of education. (He also used other supplementary methods as mentioned in Case 3). He did live with the school for two years, but he did not participate as a school principal which was his subject of study. He saw his role as one of participant-as-observer (Wolcott, 1984:7). So was Lis study (Case 3.8) of classroom sociology in her first year. She did stay with the school as a teacher but she never became a student which was her subject of study. The following two years of her study, however, was not nonparticipant observation because she applied experimental measures. During the UNICEF research in Liaoning, the basic method I used was interviewing and not nonparticipant observation, but I did have, at times, nonparticipant observation when debates occurred between the local planners and the provincial planners (Case 3.7), or when planners chat among themselves about their past experience in the field. The most frequently employed nonparticipant observation which is relevant to educational decision-making is perhaps observation at meetings. Typically, the researcher attends a meeting as an observer. The researcher tries to be as unobtrusive as possible and records everything that happens during the meeting. When Wolcott did his study on the school principal, he was present at all meetings unless he was told otherwise (Wolcott, 1984:4). The following was my experience of a non-participant observation in China. Case 4.3: A Validation Seminar I realized during the UNICEF research in Liaoning (Case 4) that one essential step in the planning for basic education in China was validation. When drafting of an education plan was complete, the draft plan had to undergo scrutiny in what is known as a validation seminar. In essence, all those related to the plan, including leaders at all levels, representatives of all relevant government departments, experts from all areas are invited to discuss. Relevant documents are sent to the participants well in advance. They are then asked to comment on the plan during the validation exercise. Only validated plans are submitted to relevant machinery for legislation. The validation seminar for Liaoning was unfortunately held before the UNICEF research. I got an opportunity, however, a year after in 1988, when the Shanghai educational plan was to undergo validation. The host of the meeting agreed to send me an invitation. I attended the meeting in the name of an external expert, although I made clear to the host that my major task was not to contribute. They agreed. During the meeting, I was able to observe the roles of the various actors during the meeting. I was also able to talk to individual participants during tea breaks and meals to understand their background and their general views about educational planning. I was able to do a number of things over the two-day meeting: (a) to classify the over 40 participants into technocrats, bureaucrats, policy-makers and academics; (b) to understand the different extents in which the participants contributed to the modification of the plan; (c) the disparity in capacity among participants in terms of information and expertise; (d) the inter-relations between the different categories of actors and (e) the function of the validation exercise. In the end, I concluded that validation was a way of legitim ation, which employed both technical (expert judgement) and political (participation) means to increase the acceptability of the plan before it went for legal endorsement. The political aspect came to me as a surprise. It indicated a change in the notion of rationality among Chinese planners and policy-makers. Interviewing Interviewing is widely used in qualitative research. Compared with observation, it is more economical in time, but may achieve less in understanding the culture. The economy in time, however, makes ethnographic interviewing almost the most widely used technique in policy-related research. Interviewing is trying to understand what people think through their speech. There are different types of interviews, often classified by the degrees of control over the interview. Along this line, we shall briefly introduce three types of interviewing: informal interviewing, unstructured interviewing, semi-structured interviewing, and formally structured interviewing. We shall also briefly introduce key-informant interviewing and focus groups which are specific types of ethnographic interviewing. Qualitative research of course has no monopoly over interviewing. Interviewing is also frequently used in research of other traditions. The difference between ethnographic interviewing and interviewing in other traditions lies mainly in two areas: the interviewer-interviewee relationship and the aims of interviews. Ethnographic interviewees, or informants, are teachers rather than subjects to the researcher, they are leaders rather than followers in the interview. The major aim of the interview should not be seeking responses to specific questions, but initiating the informant to unfold data. Readers may find more detailed discussions about ethnographic interviewing in Spradley (1979) who provides perhaps the most insightful account of the subject. In-depth discussions about ethnographic interviewing can also be found in Bernard (1988), Patton (1990), Fetterman (1989) and Powney and Watts (1987). Informal Interviewing Informal interviewing entails no control. It is usually conversations that the researcher recall after staying in the field. It is different from  observation in that it is interactive. That is, the informant speaks to the researcher. By its own nature, informal interviewing is the most ethnographic in the sense that it is not responding to any formal question. It is part of the self-unfolding process.

Dissolving Aluminium Chloride in Water

Dissolving Aluminium Chloride in Water A controlled variable is a variable that stays the same throughout an experiment such as: adding a specific amount of water to test tubes filled with different amounts of ammonium chloride. An independent variable is the variable that is changed during an experiment, e.g. different amounts of ammonium chloride added to separate test tubes in an experiment. A dependant variable is a variable that changes because of the independent variable, e.g. the difference of temperatures when the first crystals begin forming in the separate test tubes filled with different amounts of ammonium chloride. In this experiment the controlled variable will be 10mL of water that is added to each test tube filled with ammonium chloride. The independent variable will be the different amounts of ammonium chloride put into each test tube. The dependant variable will be the temperature of the first crystals appearing in the test tubes filled with different amounts of ammonium chloride that are dissolved in water. Ammonium Chloride Ammonium chloride is a substance which has the molecular formula NH‚„Cl and is highly soluble in water. It was first manufactured during the 13th century in Egypt and Europe and was originally known as sal ammoniac. It is used for a variety of purposes. In medicine it is used as an expectorant, which clears the phlegm from the bronchi, lungs and trachea area. It is also used as a component in dry cell batteries, an ingredient in cough medicine and as a dietary supplement to maintain pH levels. (See http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-ammonium-chloride.htm . Last Updated March 13th 2013.) Solubility Solubility is when a substance is dissolved in a solvent such as water. This is then measured in g/100mL to calculate the solubility of that substance in the solvent, e.g. The solubility of 50g of Ammonium chloride would be shown as 50g/100mL of water. Solubility is a method used to calculate how much of a substance can be dissolved in a solvent. This method can be explained in three different ways: a saturated solution, an unsaturated solution and a supersaturated solution. (See also: Study on Chemistry 1, page 295-96.) A saturated solution is where no more solute can dissolve in the solvent at a specific temperature.  [1]  An unsaturated solution is where more solute can be added to dissolve in the solvent at a specific temperature.  [2]  However, a supersaturated solution is where an unexpected amount of solute can still be dissolved in a solvent at a specific temperature. A supersaturated solution can only be achieved (with difficulty) by changing the conditions of the saturated solution.  [3]   In this experiment, the substance is Ammonium chloride and the solvent is water and when mixed together, the Ammonium chloride dissolves. Repeating this with different amounts of ammonium chloride gives us the solubility of Ammonium chloride in g/100mL of water. When adding more ammonium chloride, the max amount of the substance that can dissolve in the solvent is discovered, this is called a saturated solution. If a specific amount of ammonium chloride that always dissolves in g/100mL of water is used, it is called an unsaturated solution because more of the substance can be added to the solvent, to dissolve. If the saturated solution of the substance is reached but more of the substance is added and surprisingly dissolves in the solvent, it is called a supersaturated solution. This experiment can consist of a saturated or an unsaturated solution because the solubility of Ammonium chloride in water is unknown. (See also: URLs displayed in bibliography with a * next to it) Solubility Curve Solubility curve is a graph of solubility vs temperature. Solubility curves are used to predict the maximum amount of a substance that can be dissolved in a solvent at a specific temperature. Solvents A solvent is a substance that is either a liquid, solid or gas that dissolves a solute to create a solution. The maximum amount of a substance that any solvent can dissolve depends on the temperature of the solvent, e.g. If water can dissolve a maximum of 30g of ammonium chloride at 50 °C, but the temperature was increased to 60 °C it could dissolve more of the ammonium chloride. There are two categories of solvents: polar and non-polar solvents. A polar molecule has two sides; one is positive and the other negative, also known as a dipolar molecule. Polar molecules have polar bonds, though some can have polar bonds but are non-polar molecules. This is because the polar bonds are arranged in a way that they cancel each other out. The overall polarity of a molecule depends on the direction of the bond dipoles in a molecule which is determined by the shape of the molecule. Polar solvents can have a small electrical charge because of the shape of the compound. A compound such as water has the hydrogen atoms at opposite angles of the oxygen atom. The hydrogen atoms can create a small electrical charge because of the direction of the bond dipoles, which is determined by the shape of the hydrogen atom. A molecule may mix in a polar solvent if it has a polarity of its own. Salt and sugar both dissolve in water easily because their molecules are attracted to the small electrical charges of water. Non-polar solvents dont have an electrical charge and cannot mix with a polar solvent. Polar and non-polar solvents use a dielectric constant to provide a rough measure of the solvents polarity. Dielectric constants are the electrical properties of a solvent using a capacitor, in which electrical currents pass through. Non-polar solvents are considered to have a dielectric constant of less than 15. The polarity index measures the ability of a solvent to dissolve different polar materials. The results of both these tests are used in a table of common solvents and in future can be used for identifying solvents in chemical processes. (See also: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-polar-solvent.htm : Last Updated: 14th March 2013.) (See also: http://www.erowid.org/archive/rhodium/pdf/solvent.miscibility.pdf : Last Updated 14th March 2013.) Polar and non polar solvents are related to this experiment because water is a polar solvent and ammonium chloride is a polar solute. This means that the two can mix together. If either one was a non-polar solvent or solute, they wouldnt mix because they dont have a positive or negative pole that binds them together. Endothermic Reactions An endothermic reaction is where a product absorbs energy from its surroundings, causing its surroundings to drop in temperature. In an exothermic chemical reaction the reactants have more energy than the products. However, in an endothermic chemical reaction the products have more energy than the reactants because it absorbs the energy from the reactants and the environment. If ammonium chloride is added in a beaker filled with water and dissolved, the beaker would become cold. This is because it is an endothermic reaction, where the ammonium chloride absorbs the energy from the solvent (water) and its surroundings. This is why we heat ammonium chloride, so that more of it can be dissolved in a solvent (water) and the temperature will not drop rapidly. (See also http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_aqa_pre_2011/chemreac/energychangesrev1.shtml : Last Updated 14th March 2013.) What is being investigated? The idea of this investigation is to observe what happens when ammonium chloride is added in a test tube filled with a specific amount of water and heated. The next part of the investigation is to observe what happens when the product is allowed to cool. How is it being investigated? This experiment is being investigated by using a range of equipment. An electronic balance is being used to weigh the ammonium chloride and get an accurate result, and a burette to measure an accurate, 10mL of water which is added into a test tube with the ammonium chloride. An electric hot plate is then used to heat up this mixture, and dissolve it while in the process of heating. Next, a retort stand is used to cool down the mixture, so that you dont have to hold the test tube with your hand since it would be really, really hot! Finally, a digital thermometer is used to get a result of the temperature of when something happens in the test tube, when it is cooling down. These results of the experiment are written down and put into tables and graphs so that others may understand how the results were gathered using these equipment. How will the results be analysed? The results will be analysed by finding trends in the statistics that have been written down. These results will then be put into a table and graph. The table will be analysed to investigate if there are any results that dont fit in and if there is a reason why this result occurred during the experiment. The graph will be analysed by finding if there is a trend between the results on the graph (e.g. a constant) and how they match up. Next, the graph is analysed by checking if there is any inconsistencies or results that seem out of place. Finally, the graph is analysed by testing or checking the results to see if they are correct or incorrect. Materials solid ammonium chloride 2 retort stands 500 ml beaker Hand lens 250 mL distilled water burette burette holder large clean test tube electric hot plate spatula stirring rod digital thermometer 2 retort stand clamps heat mat electronic balance black card safety glasses Method 4gms of solid ammonium chloride was measured and the actual mass was recorded. The solid ammonium chloride was put into the large clean test tube. The burette was filled with distilled water till the level reached 10mL. This 10mL of water was added to the large clean test tube with the solid ammonium chloride. 300mL of hot water was added to the 500mL beaker. The beaker was placed on the electric hot plate. The beaker was heated up to boiling temperature and the large test tube was slowly placed inside with the water level in the beaker 3cm higher than the water level inside the test tube using the retort stand and clamp. The mixture in the test tube was gently stirred using the glass stirring rod until dissolved. The large test tube was removed from the beaker after the solid ammonium chloride dissolved and allowed to cool. The large test tube was stirred and watched using the hand lens and the black card to observe the first crystals form. The digital thermometer was used to measure the temperature of the first crystals forming. The mixture was then heated up again and using steps 7 -11 the process was repeated two more times to get the most accurate results of the crystals forming with 4gms of solid Ammonium Chloride. Steps 1 13 was repeated again using 5g, 6g and 7g of solid ammonium chloride. Discussion Trends The results in Table 1, 2 and Graph 1 all have one trend in common; as the temperature increases, the solubility of ammonium chloride increases. This trend shows that the results are reliable but not valid because graph 2, which is the accepted results, shows that the solubility curve of the two graphs do not match i.e. the values do not match but they follow the same pattern. Another trend in the results is the temperature, which shows that for the solubility of ammonium chloride, each gram that was tested roughly differs by 7 °C. This trend is neither reliable nor valid because they do not match graph 2 and the patterns in the graph are different. Saturated, Unsaturated or Supersaturated These results also indicate that this could be a saturated solution, unsaturated or a supersaturated solution because 4g of ammonium chloride dissolved in water at a temperature of 73.43 °C, though the 7g of ammonium chloride dissolved at a higher temperature of 94.56 °C meaning that it took longer to dissolve 7g than 4g. This, in turn, shows that if more ammonium chloride was added to the 7g of ammonium chloride it would have taken longer to dissolve and once it passed boiling temperature water would have evaporated till there was no solvent left and there would still be ammonium chloride. This would mean that 4, 5, 6 and 7g of ammonium chloride was an unsaturated solution. This is an error because it is completely different when compared to the result of graph 2. This error means that something occurred during the experiment which made the ammonium chloride at a higher temperature or simply a random error where the water was heated before the ammonium chloride was put into the beaker. This error has significantly changed the result as it has increased the temperature of dissolution when it should be a lot lower. Comparison (validity and reliability) Table 1 shows the 4, 5, 6 and 7 grams of ammonium chloride was tested three times to get the most accurate result. These three results were then divided to give an average. The average of the 6 and 7 grams of ammonium chloride in comparison to graph 2 is reliable because the solubility of ammonium chloride increases with the temperature. The average of the 4 and 5 grams of ammonium chloride in comparison to graph 2 could be reliable but the percentage of error is too high for this to be acceptable meaning that there was an error in the consistency of the experiment. Graph 1: Solubility of Ammonium Chloride shows the four averages of each test of ammonium chloride, with a trend-line that predicts the solubility of ammonium chloride between 0 °C and 100 °C. In addition the graph shows that when you keep adding more and more ammonium chloride the temperature for it to dissolve will increase, but only by a few degrees each time. Graph 2: Accepted Values Solubility of Ammonium Chloride are the accepted values of the solubility of ammonium chloride. In comparison to graph 1, both graphs have a curve, though graph 1 has more curve than graph 2, where the curve is very slight. Graph 1 and 2 do not match at all, meaning that there are errors and/or inconsistences in this experiment. Table 1, 2 and Graph Solubility of Ammonium Chloride all fit the theory that ammonium chloride dissolves in water. When we match up all the results in this experiment, they clearly do not match the accepted values. The accepted values are vastly different as graph 1 shows that 39.99 grams of ammonium chloride dissolves at 73.43 °C and graph 2 shows that 39.99 grams of ammonium chloride dissolves at roughly 28.12 °C. The results fit the theory because all four tests of ammonium chloride dissolved in water. The only factors that could have changed this outcome could have been the amount of substance in a solvent which is heated to a specific temperature. In the end graph 1 explains as the temperature increases, so will the amount of ammonium chloride that dissolves. Errors Possible errors that could have occurred during the experiment are: the solid didnt dissolve properly, temperature could have been wrong during the cooling down process, the recrystallization of the ammonium chloride in water was difficult to judge and malfunction of equipment could have caused errors. The reason why the solid might not have dissolved is because the temperature might not have been high enough or I didnt stir it enough. In the case of a random error the solid might not have dissolved but the eye might not have been able to see a very small particle even with a small magnifying glass. The reason the temperature could have been wrong is because when I stirred the mixture, the heat from the bottom of the test tube would have mixed with the cool temperature at the top of the test tube, meaning that when you saw the first crystals appearing the temperature could have still been changing. During the experiment the ammonium chloride solution from the first trials was recycle d to be used for further trials. This could have changed the purity of the ammonium chloride because it looked very different to the normal ammonium chloride. This could mean that while the weight did not present a problem, it may have not been completely dry which could affect the results. The malfunction of equipment could have occurred without my knowledge, such as the balance scale being inaccurate (e.g. the small empty cupcake cups on the scale did not balance at 0). Another malfunction could have occurred with the thermometer not working properly. The loss of ammonium chloride not dissolving could have lowered the solubility of the substance. The likelihood of the scale not working is very low and could be counted as a random error, but if it wasnt working the solubility of the substance would be lower than expected if there was less ammonium chloride and higher if there was more ammonium chloride. The recrystallization could have been the exact same as normal solid ammonium chloride or it could have weighted more or less. This would make the answer higher if the ammonium chloride weighed more than it should. Overall I believe the results and answers I recorded might have been a bit too high or even low, but I definitely know that they arent exact. One way to possibly improve the experiment is to use the exact amount of water and ammonium chloride to get a measurement of solubility (g/100mL). This would prove to be more accurate and would be better suited in a beaker, on top of the electric hot plate as the heat would be dispe rsed around the entire beaker. Further investigations that could be included into this experiment could be finding out the saturated solution of ammonium chloride at a specific temperature. This would be good because it is very likely that every group would get different results and have to explain more in their discussion about errors and if they think that their answer is valid or not. Improvements One way to possibly improve the experiment is to use the exact amount of water to get a measurement of solubility (100mL). This would prove to be more accurate and would be better suited in a beaker placed on an electric hot plate as the heat would be dispersed around the entire beaker. Further investigations that could be included could be finding out the saturated solution of ammonium chloride at a specific temperature. This would be good because it is very likely that every group would get different results and have to explain more in their discussion about errors and if they think that their answer is accurate or not. Conclusion In conclusion I discovered that 4, 5, 6 and 7 grams of solid ammonium chloride was soluble in water at different temperatures. The hypothesis that different amounts of ammonium chloride will dissolve in water at varying temperatures was answered. The results that I recorded werent valid because they did not match the accepted values, though the results were reliable in some cases as they did have a pattern and this pattern matched the accepted values.